IUCN Shark Specialist Group Red List Assessments, 2000

(confirmed by SSG meeting in June 1999, updated July 2000)

• IUCN/SSC Red List Listing Criteria

• Species:1.1 Bluntnose sixgill (Hexanchus griseus)
  
• Assessor(s):S.F.Cook & L.J.V. Compagno
  
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
  
• Red list rationale:A valuable food and sports fish, the species seems unable to sustain target fisheries and is taken as bycatch (e.g. in Centrophorus liver oil fisheries now underway over large areas of the Indo-Pacific). Fisheries activity in parts of its range, including the Northeast Pacific, have led to the depletion of regional populations, some of which may be Vulnerable (A1bd, 2bd). However, because population and fisheries data are lacking from many regions, a worldwide population depletion of over 20% is not proven for this wide-spread species.
  
  
• Species:1.2 Broadnose sevengill (Notorynchus cepedianus)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient. Lower Risk (near threatened) in the Eastern Pacific
• Red list rationale:Although wide-ranging and moderately common (where not heavily exploited), this shark is restricted to a limited inshore depth range in heavily fished temperate waters and is exposed to intensive inshore fisheries over most of its range. The central California stock in the San Francisco Bay area is thought to have been depleted in the early 1980s, but lack of fisheries data elsewhere make it impossible to determine whether this pattern of depletion occurs throughout its range.

• Species:2.1 Gulper shark (Centrophorus granulosus)
• Assessor(s):S. F. Cook
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1 a b d, A2 d)
• Red list rationale:This wide-spread species is being heavily fished in deepwater fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic, Northwest Pacific and other regions. Its life history makes it highly vulnerable to overexploitation and population depletion. The 'Vulnerable' assessment for the gulper shark may well be applicable to most other poorly-known deep-sea species that are now being exploited by unmanaged expanding fisheries. Studies are required to determine their life history characteristics and other parameters necessary for management.
  
  
• Species:2.2 Piked or spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias)
• Assessor(s):S. Fordham
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This important and wide-ranging commercial species is particularly vulnerable to overfishing because of its late maturity, low reproductive capacity and longevity. Fished populations in the North Atlantic have a well-documented history of over-exploitation followed by near-collapse, suggesting that 'Vulnerable' might be an appropriate assessment for some regions. However, the species is still landed commercially in significant numbers from target fisheries (some of which are managed) in many parts of the world and is of high value in international trade.
  
  
• Species:2.3 Kitefin shark (Dalatias licha)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V. Compagno & S. F. Cook
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:Lower Risk (near threatened) in the Northeast Atlantic. Records of yields from the Portuguese/Azores kitefin shark fishery suggest that targeted fisheries are capable of reducing populations quite rapidly. The life history of this species is expected to result in a slow recovery after depletion. An increasing trend for fisheries to move into deeper water on continental shelves and slopes suggests that fishing pressure on this species will likely increase over the next decade or more. However, because the kitefin shark is widely distributed and data on fisheries and populations are lacking from most of its range, it is not possible to reach a global assessment.

• Species:3.1 Common sawshark (Pristiophorus cirratus)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This common benthic shark is endemic to southern Australia. There are no useful biological data available for this species, and no assessment of the impact of commercial fishing. Although they are caught only as bycatch, the fisheries are large and have the potential to impact on the populations. Further research is needed to fully determine the status of this species, but at present there appears to be no significant extinction risk.

• Species:4.1 Pacific Angel shark (Squatina californica)
• Assessor(s):G. Cailliet
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk near threatened.
• Red list rationale:This once abundant eastern Pacific coastal shark is relatively slow-growing, late maturing, and moderately fecund. Because of its rather limited geographical range and life history, resident stocks may be particularly vulnerable to heavy localised fishing pressure. Commercial catch data in recent decades documented a peak, followed by an almost complete collapse in the central California gillnet fishery for California halibut, now closed. This area encompasses a sizable portion of the species' range and its main center of distribution. A continued targeted commercial fishery for this species would pose a threat to the population in U.S. waters. It is uncertain what the Mexican fishery effort or catch might be for this, and perhaps a different species of Squatina, and the long-term prognosis of the population.
  
  
• Species:4.2 Argentine angel shark (Squatina argentina)
• Assessor(s):G. E. Chiaramonte
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:The Argentine angel shark is one of the three species of angel sharks on the Western South Atlantic continental shelf from Southern Brazil to Northern Argentina. It is a poorly known but moderately common bottom-dwelling shark in depths of over 120 m. Although rarely targeted because of its depth range, its life history is only partly understood and population status uncertain. Further study and reassessment in the near future will be required, in view of the fact that most species of Squatina are likely to prove to be vulnerable to depletion by fisheries.
  
  
• Species:4.3 Angular angel shark (Squatina guggenheim)
• Assessor(s):G. E. Chiaramonte
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1bd, A2d) Endangered (A1bd, A2d) in Brazil
• Red list rationale:This is a common bottom-dwelling shark at depths of between 10 to 80 m in western South Atlantic coastal waters from Southern Brazil to Northern Argentina. Although not usually targeted, it is commonly captured and landed by unmanaged multi-species gillnet and bottom trawl fisheries, and 50% of landings are immature. Intensive exploitation in recent years has led to an 88% decrease in trawling CPUE for the angel sharks S. guggenheim and S. occulta in Southern Brazil (Vooren 1996), although landings remain high because of the increased fishing effort targeting more fecund species in the multi-species fishery.
  
  
• Species:4.4 Smoothback angel shark (Squatina occulta)
• Assessor(s):G. E. Chiaramonte
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1a,b,d & A2 d)
• Red list rationale:This bottom-dwelling shark occurs from 24° S (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) to 33° S (Uruguay), in Western South Atlantic shelf waters. It matures at a larger size and reproduces more slowly than S. guggenheim, the other angel shark commonly captured and landed from multi-species gillnet and bottom trawl fisheries in the region. S. occulta makes up about 30% of angel shark catches and 70% of individuals landed are immature. Intensive exploitation in Brazilian waters in recent years has led to an 88% decrease in trawling CPUE for both S. guggenheim and S. occulta in Southern Brazil (Vooren 1996). Fishing effort in the multi-species fisheries that take this angel shark as utilised bycatch will not be affected by a continued population decline.
  
  
• Species:4.5 Angel shark (Squatina squatina)
• Assessor(s):M. Pawson & J. Ellis
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1 abcd, A2 d)
• Red list rationale:This species is restricted to the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean, where it is becoming increasingly uncommon and has been extirpated from parts of its former range. It is vulnerable as bycatch in bottom trawls and set nets throughout its range.

• Species:5.1 Horn Shark (Heterodontus francisci)
• Assessor(s):G. M. Cailliet
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (LR) Least Concern
• Red list rationale:The life history and growth rates of this common oviparous eastern Pacific coastal shark are poorly known, but it appears to be a productive species. Horn sharks are not targeted either by commercial or recreational fisheries, although there is some incidental catch, and they reproduce well in captivity for public aquarium display. There are no known threats to the population.
  
  
• Species:5.2 Port Jackson shark (Heterodontus portusjacksoni)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk, Least Concern (LR(lc))
• Red list rationale:This abundant shark is endemic to Australian waters. There is currently no evidence to suggest that Port Jackson shark populations are at risk from human impacts. Although caught in commercial fisheries in substantial quantities, most are returned to the water alive. Sports fishers and the aquarium trade also take small numbers. Habitat modification and other environmental factors do not appear to be a threat to the health of populations.

• Species:6.1 Bluegray carpetshark (Heteroscyllium colcloughi)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V.Compagno, P. Last & J. Stevens
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (C2b).
• Red list rationale:Fewer than twenty specimens of this small, attractive but poorly known little shark are recorded, mostly from inshore waters of Moreton Bay. This shark seems to be unabundant as far as is known despite coverage of available habitat. As presently known it has an extremely limited geographic and bathymetric range off Queensland and occurs in waters that are heavily utilized by people and which are subjected to intensive fisheries.
  
  
• Species:6.2 Whale shark (Rhincodon typus)
• Assessor(s):B. Norman
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1 bd, A2d)
• Red list rationale:The life history of this relatively scarce but cosmopolitan tropical and warm temperate species is poorly understood, but it may be relatively fecund and migrates extremely large distances. Catches have declined and populations apparently been depleted by harpoon fisheries in several countries targeting localised concentrations of this huge, slow-moving and behaviourally-vulnerable species, and there is incidental capture in other fisheries. Directed fisheries, high value in international trade, a K-selected life history, highly migratory nature, and low abundance make this species vulnerable to exploitation. In recent years dive tourism involving this species has developed in a number of locations around the world.

• Species:7.1 Sand Tiger or Grey Nurse Shark (Carcharias taurus)
• Assessor(s):D. Pollard & A. Smith
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1a,b, A2d)
• Red list rationale:This large coastal species of shark has one of the lowest reproductive rates known among elasmobranchs, giving birth to one or two large young every two years. As a result, annual rates of population increase and ability to sustain fishing pressure are very low. Although the species is widespread, regional populations are isolated and no longer thought to mix. Catch rates of well-studied populations in Australia and South Africa have shown declines as a result of commercial fishing, spearfishing and beach meshing, requiring the introduction of management. Despite protection in Australia, population recovery is being very slow.
  
  
• Species:7.2 Bigeye sand tiger (Odontaspis noronhai)
• Assessor(s):A.F. Amorim, C.A. Arfelli & L. Fagundes
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:This rare pelagic deepwater shark is sparsely but widely distributed in tropical and warm-temperate waters, apparently an inhabitant of continental and insular slopes. It is so infrequently recorded that its biology and population status is unknown. Its life cycle and biology is likely to be similar to that of C. taurus, which has been found to be particularly vulnerable to fisheries, although O. noronhai matures at an even larger size.
  
  
• Species:7.3 Crocodile shark (Pseudocarcharias kamoharai)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V.Compagno & J.Musick
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This small, uncommon, pelagic, oceanic shark is circumtropical in distribution. Because of its small litter size and probable life history demography, it is likely vulnerable as bycatch in expanding pelagic high-seas long-line fisheries. No catch per unit effort records are available to indicate trends in population size, but a population decline from bycatch is considered probable and is predicted to continue or increase as existing massive pelagic long-lining fishing effort increases worldwide.
  
  
• Species:7.4 Megamouth shark (Megachasma pelagios)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:A large, mainly deepwater filter-feeding species that is known from only a few bycaught or stranded specimens and is apparently very rare throughout its range. It could increasingly be taken as bycatch in deepwater fisheries.
  
  
• Species:7.5 Thresher shark (Alopias vulpinus)
• Assessor(s):K.J. Goldman
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk, Near Threatened for the California population only, with the global assessment remaining unchanged from 2000.
• Red list rationale:This abundant and globally distributed continental shelf species occurs in a wide range of water temperatures. Size and fecundity varies geographically. It is an important economic species in many areas and has been taken in large numbers as a targeted and landed bycatch species. The California drift gill net fishery provided strong evidence that A. vulpinus is highly vulnerable to overfishing in a short period of time. A lack of fisheries data from other locations, incomplete knowledge of stock structures, and uncertainty over life history parameters make it impossible to determine population size or fluctuations elsewhere.
  
  
• Species:7.6 Basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus)
• Assessor(s):S.L. Fowler
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1a,d, A2d). Endangered (A1a,d) in the Northeast Atlantic and North Pacific regions (where target fisheries have occurred).
• Red list rationale:A very large filter-feeding cold-water pelagic species, widely distributed but only regularly seen in a few favoured coastal locations and probably never very abundant. Documented fisheries in several regions have usually been characterised by rapidly declining local populations as a result of short-term fisheries exploitation, followed by very slow or no recorded population recovery. There is likely potential for similar population declines to occur in the future from directed and bycatch fisheries, driven at least in part by the demand for fins in international trade. Basking sharks are now legally protected in some territorial waters. Compagno (1984) considers the basking shark "to be extremely vulnerable to overfishing, perhaps more so than most sharks ... ascribed to its slow growth rate, lengthy maturation time, long gestation period, probably low fecundity and probable small size of existing populations (belied by the immense size of individuals in their small schools)."
  
  
• Species:7.9 Great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias)
• Assessor(s):I.Fergusson, L. Compagno & M.Marks
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1cd; A2cd).
• Red list rationale:The white shark is a widely but sparsely distributed top predator with a very low reproductive potential (late maturity and small litter size) and high vulnerability to target and bycatch fisheries (commercial and recreational), some of which supply products (fins, jaws and teeth) for international trade. Where detailed population data are available, these indicate that the abundance and average size of white sharks have declined. The species is now effectively protected in some parts of its range, where it may be Lower Risk (conservation dependent). A global status of Endangered (A1cd; A2cd) may be proven accurate for this shark as further data is collated.
  
  
• Species:7.10 Shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus)
• Assessor(s):J. Stevens
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:A wide-ranging oceanic and pelagic shark with high value meat, the shortfin mako is subject to significant bycatch and targeted fisheries in some areas. Most catches are inadequately or un-recorded, and its relatively low reproductive capacity makes it very susceptible to depletion by these fisheries. However, the species is very wide-ranging and has a relatively fast growth rate. There is no evidence to suggest that its global population has been sufficiently depleted for it to warrant 'Vulnerable' status at the present time.
  
  
• Species:7.11 Salmon shark (Lamna ditropis)
• Assessor(s):K. J. Goldman & B. Human
• Red list assessment:Data deficient
• Red list rationale:The salmon shark is widespread in the boreal North Pacific, but its biology and life history is little known. It appears to have a very low fecundity and is probably slow to mature. As such, it may be extremely vulnerable to current bycatch pressure and to commercial fishing activity in the Northwest Pacific. Commercial fishing is closed in Alaska and a management decision is pending in US Federal waters. There is a lack of catch and landing statistics and no population data for the species.
  
  
• Species:7.12 Porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus)
• Assessor(s):J. Stevens
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened). Vulnerable (A1bd) in NE Atlantic. Lower Risk (conservation dependent) in NW Atlantic.
• Red list rationale:A very wide-ranging species (albeit with apparently little exchange between neighbouring populations), but with a low reproductive capacity and high commercial value. Taken both in target and incidental fisheries. Global populations are not proven to have been depleted to a level where they qualify for a Vulnerable status. However, North Atlantic populations have been seriously over-exploited in longline fisheries, although the introduction of management for US and Canadian shark fisheries should reverse the serious decline in this stock. The apparent lack of exchange between populations on each side of the North Atlantic has resulted in separate assessments for the western and eastern stocks.

• Species:8.1 Puffadder shyshark (Haploblepharus edwardsii)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V.Compagno & M.Krose
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:Locally common, but with a very limited range lying wholly within heavily fished and potentially degraded inshore waters. Changes in nearshore fisheries, for example leading to increased bycatch, or habitat degradation could affect the whole population of this South African endemic.
  
  
• Species:8.2 Brown shyshark (Haploblepharus fuscus)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V.Compagno & M.Krose
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:Locally common, but with a very limited range lying wholly within heavily fished and potentially degraded inshore waters. Changes in nearshore fisheries, for example leading to increased bycatch, or habitat degradation could affect the whole population of this South African endemic.
  
  
• Species:8.3 Narrowmouth catshark (Schroederichthys bivius)
• Assessor(s):G. E. Chiaramonte
• Red list assessment:
• Red list rationale:The narrowmouth catshark is restricted to the Western South Atlantic and Eastern South Pacific continental shelf, from Brazil to Chile, at depths of 10 - 359m. Good data are available on the biology of this poorly known, albeit moderately common inshore and offshore shark, but inadequate information on the possible impacts on its populations of habitat degradation (particularly within its estuarine nursery grounds) and fisheries.
  
  
• Species:8.4 Pyjama shark (Poroderma africanum)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:This South African shark has a restricted zoogeogeographic and bathymetric range in a heavily fished, well-populated area and has no specific protection. Although generally not targeted at present, it is subject to fisheries pressure from commercial and sports fisheries. Its status is of concern because of increasing regional fisheries for small sharks for the export market over the last few years. Introduction of legislation to decommercialise the species would probably result in a revised assessment of Lower Risk (conservation dependent).
  
  
• Species:8.5 Yellowspotted catshark (Scyliorhinus capensis)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V.Compagno & M.Krose
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:A moderately common shark on the heavily fished offshore banks of southern Namibia and South Africa, where it may form a single population. It has a very limited geographic range in heavily fished waters, where it is taken as fisheries bycatch and is potentially affected by habitat degradation from trawling.
  
  
• Species:8.6 Barbeled houndshark (Leptocharias smithii)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:This small live-bearing shark is (or was?) relatively common within its limited range in heavily fished tropical inshore West African coastal waters. Taken as utilised bycatch, but fisheries statistics are lacking.
  
  
• Species:8.7 Whiskery shark (Furgaleus macki)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (Conservation Dependent).
• Red list rationale:This common, moderately-sized triakid shark is endemic to the continental shelf waters of southern and western Australia. Its biomass level has been reduced significantly by commercial fishing in south-western Australia. However, a management plan to ensure the survival of the species, and the long-term economic viability of the fishery, has been implemented. Given the high level of research and management in this fishery it is likely that there is no extinction risk for this species in the foreseeable future.
  
  
• Species:8.8 School or Tope shark (Galeorhinus galeus)
• Assessor(s):J. Stevens
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1bd) globally. Lower Risk (conservation dependent) in Australasia.
• Red list rationale:School sharks are a widespread mainly coastal and bottom associated shark of temperate areas which has been fished in all parts of its distribution. They are particularly long-lived, and slow to mature. Because of the species' low productivity and its history of stock collapse (e.g. in the Eastern Pacific and Brazil), the global population is considered to have been reduced significantly in the past 60-75 years (three generations). Stock assessment of the Australian population suggests that current biomass is between 20 and 59% of the total virgin biomass, or between 19-43% of mature virgin biomass. However, school sharks in Australia and New Zealand have been fished commercially for over 50 years and management plans are currently in place to rebuild the populations. There is no other management for this species.
  
  
• Species:8.9 Whitefin topeshark (Hemitriakis leucoperiptera)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered (B1 & 2ce; C2b).
• Red list rationale:This little-known inshore tropical shark is found only in heavily fished and environmentally degraded Philippine coastal waters. Only two free-living specimens are known from an extremely restricted range. There are no records over the last fifty or more years.
  
  
• Species:8.10 Blacktip topeshark (Hypogaleus hyugaensis)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer & L.J.V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:This small triakid shark has a patchy distribution in the Indo-West Pacific. Given the minor nature of this species in fisheries, it is unlikely that it faces an immediate threat of extinction. However, its patchy distribution and relatively low abundance throughout its range increases the potential for future fishing pressure to cause problems.
  
  
• Species:8.11 Gummy shark (Mustelus antarcticus)
• Assessor(s):T. Walker
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (conservation dependent).
• Red list rationale:Gummy sharks are endemic to Southern Australia, occurring mainly on the continental shelf. This is a highly productive shark species in terms of the maximum sustainable yield rate (defined as the maximum sustainable yield divided by the biomass at equilibrium required to provide that yield), which is about 12% for gummy shark. The Red List Assessment is based on the following considerations: (a) the productivity of the species is relatively high, (b) current biomass is estimated as being close to half the biomass before fishing began, and (c) the fishery is managed with firm controls implemented.
  
  
• Species:8.12 Rig (Mustelus lenticulatus)
• Assessor(s):M. P. Francis
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (conservation dependent).
• Red list rationale:This abundant, small, coastal shark is endemic to New Zealand, where it is commercially fished. Catches have been constrained by Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs) following the identification of at least some of the five stocks as severely overfished. Rig are fast growing, at least up to maturity, and there is anecdotal evidence that heavily depleted stocks have rebuilt rapidly since the introduction of ITQs in 1986. This is one of the most resilient commercially fished species of shark, capable of recovering from serious depletion.
  
  
• Species:8.13 Starry smoothhound (Mustelus asterias)
• Assessor(s):J. Ellis
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (least concern).
• Red list rationale:This coastal species is widespread, although not abundant, from Northern Europe to Northwest Africa, including the Mediterranean. It is not considered to be in any immediate threat of over-exploitation. It is occasionally caught in trawls, which may be a reflection of it favouring rocky areas, where it can be caught in gill nets. There is no evidence of a decline in the population, and it is not subject to a targeted commercial fishery.
  
  
• Species:8.14 Common smoothhound (M. mustelus)
• Assessor(s):J. Ellis
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (least concern).
• Red list rationale:This coastal species is widespread, although not abundant, from Northern Europe to South Africa, including the Mediterranean. Although this species is not abundant and taken in mixed-species fisheries, it is widespread and there is no evidence of a decline in the population.
  
  
• Species:8.15 Dusky Smoothhound (Mustelus canis)
• Assessor(s):C. Conraths
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:This small shark occurs in the Western Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean from Massachusetts to Northern Argentina. It is taken in parts of its range for food. A recent rapid expansion in directed gillnet fishing has caused a rapid decline in some stocks of large females in US waters. All fisheries are unmanaged.
  
  
• Species:8.16 Flapnose houndshark (Scylliogaleus quecketti)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (B2c, C2b)
• Red list rationale:An uncommon endemic houndshark with low fecundity and an extremely restricted range off eastern South Africa (northeastern part of Eastern Cape Province to northern KwaZulu-Natal), within inshore waters subjected to heavy fishing pressure and potential habitat degradation. The species occurs close inshore at the surfline and in the intertidal. Presumably only one population exists, estimated to be comprised of fewer than 10 000 mature adults.
  
  
• Species:8.17 Sharpfin houndshark (Triakis acutipinna)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (C2b).
• Red list rationale:This houndshark was described in 1968 from two specimens collected off the Isla de la Plata, Ecuador. It has not been reported since. It is extremely rare and has a very restricted distribution in waters exploited by unregulated shark fisheries.
  
  
• Species:8.18 Spotted gully shark (Triakis megalopterus)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (Near Threatened).
• Red list rationale:Uncommon inshore species with limited distribution from Southern Angola to KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, from the intertidal and surfline to 50 m depth. These waters are exploited by unregulated shark fisheries which take this shark as bycatch. It would be assessed as Lower Risk (conservation dependent) if the South African fishery was decommercialised.
  
  
• Species:8.19 Leopard shark (Triakis semifasciata)
• Assessor(s):S. E. Smith
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (Conservation Dependent).
• Red list rationale:This mid-sized coastal shark is fairly common in bays and estuaries of the eastern North Pacific from California, USA, to the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. It is taken both commercially and by recreational anglers. Although a slow-growing, late-maturing shark with low productivity, management introduced in recent decades has protected the core of the population in California and Oregon waters from excessive harvesting. Little is known of the stock status in Mexico.
  
  
• Species:8.20 Graceful shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:A little studied coastal Indo-West Pacific continental shelf species impacted throughout its range by incidental capture in commercial fisheries. Although not targeted by directed fisheries, it is widely landed. Further life history research is required.
  
  
• Species:8.21 Gray reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos)
• Assessor(s):M. J. Smale
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:This widespread social species was formerly common in clear tropical coastal waters and oceanic atolls. Its restricted habitat choice, site fidelity, inshore distribution, small litter size, relatively late age at maturity and increasing unmanaged fishing pressure suggests that this species may be under threat. More fisheries data are required. Although caught in tropical multi-species fisheries, it has considerably greater value if protected for dive tourism.
  
  
• Species:8.22 Pigeye or Java shark (Carcharhinus amboinensis)
• Assessor(s):G. Cliff
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient (DD). Lower Risk (near threatened) in Southwest Indian Ocean
• Red list rationale:C. amboinensis is sporadically distributed in the Indo-West Pacific, which may, in part, be due to an inability to distinguish it from other members of the genus Carcharhinus. Where fisheries data are available, this species constitutes a very small component of the catch, suggesting that it may not be common. Natal Sharks Board data demonstrate a significant declining trend in catches from 1978-98, with evidence of localised stock depletion, and a decrease in mean length in the southwest Indian Ocean. This shark's apparently sporadic distribution and low abundance suggests that it may be unable to sustain heavy, localised fishing pressure, and shark fisheries are intensifying in the Indo-Pacific.
  
  
• Species:8.23 Borneo shark (Carcharhinus borneensis)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered (C2b).
• Red list rationale:A small rare inshore coastal shark. Known only from five undoubted specimens (four of which from Borneo), none more recent than 1937. Not recorded in the 1996/97 IUCN-Shark Specialist Group and Sabah Fisheries Department survey of marine sharks in markets in Sabah, Borneo (Malaysia), nor surveys in 1999/2000 in the Philippines.
  
  
• Species:8.24 Spinner shark (Carcharhinus brevipinna)
• Assessor(s):G. H. Burgess
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened). Vulnerable (A1bd+2d) in NW Atlantic
• Red list rationale:The spinner shark is cosmopolitan in near and offshore warm-temperate, subtropical and tropical continental and insular shelf waters. It is frequently captured in recreational and commercial fisheries. Its meat is valuable and fins are marketable. It frequents nearshore waters as adults and has inshore nursery areas, making it highly vulnerable to fishing pressure and human-induced habitat alteration.
  
  
• Species:8.25 Pondicherry shark (Carcharhinus hemiodon)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (C2a).
• Red list rationale:This is a rarely recorded and poorly known inshore Indo-Pacific shark, represented by fewer than 20 specimens in museum collections from areas impacted by major fisheries. Only one specimen reported during an extensive survey of market landings in Karachi, Pakistan, in 1974. Not recorded during a survey of fishing camps in southern India in 1982, nor during the 1996/97 IUCN-Shark Specialist Group and Sabah Fisheries Department survey of marine sharks in markets in Sabah, Borneo (Malaysia), nor surveys in 1999/2000 in the Philippines.
  
  
• Species:8.26 Silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis)
• Assessor(s):R. Bonfil
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (least concern). Data deficient in the Northern Indian Ocean, Tropical Pacific and Western North Atlantic
• Red list rationale:A common, large, semi-pelagic coastal and oceanic shark of continental shelf and slope waters, discontinuously distributed in all tropical ocean basins. Caught in large numbers as bycatch in oceanic fisheries, but often unreported or misidentified. Landed for meat and fins by multi-species shark fisheries. Reproductive capacity limited (annual rate of population increase estimated as 4%). Despite a lack of population sizes estimates, observations of trends, or indices of abundance for any stock (studies of fisheries impacts are a high priority), the silky shark is considered to be susceptible to over-exploitation by analogy with better known Carcharinids.
  
  
• Species:8.27 Smoothtooth blacktip (Carcharhinus leiodon)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (B1, 2c, C2b).
• Red list rationale:Known from a single record from the Gulf of Aden, where sharks are heavily fished. Presumed to have a very restricted distribution in the North Indian Ocean and a small population.
  
  
• Species:8.28 Bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer and G. H. Burgess
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This common tropical and subtropical species occurs in marine, estuarine and freshwater, and can penetrate long distances up large rivers. It is caught in fisheries throughout its range, but is rarely a target species. Its occurrence in estuaries and freshwater makes it very vulnerable to human impacts and habitat modification. Given this species' habitat requirements in areas that are currently heavily impacted by human activity, its life history, and target and bycatch in many inshore fisheries, there is some concern that bull sharks may be threatened. Average length of bull sharks caught by the Natal Sharks Board have declined significantly.
  
  
• Species:8.29 Blacktip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus)
• Assessor(s):G.H.Burgess & S.Branstetter
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (near threatened). Vulnerable (A1bcd, 2cd) in NW Atlantic.
• Red list rationale:A modest-sized shark widespread in warm-temperate, subtropical and tropical waters world-wide. It frequents inshore waters as adults and has inshore nursery areas, making it highly vulnerable to fishing pressure and human-induced habitat alteration. Frequently captured in commercial and recreational fisheries, its meat is valuable and fins highly marketable.
  
  
• Species:8.30 Oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus)
• Assessor(s):M.J.Smale
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:This species is a widespread and common large pelagic shark of warm oceanic waters. It presumably has a low reproductive capacity, but is extremely abundant and wide-ranging and is subject to fishery pressure as a common bycatch species with tuna and other pelagic species. This bycatch is either inadequately reported or unrecorded. The fins are highly prized in trade although the carcass is often discarded. Fishery pressure is likely to persist, if not increase in future, and the impact of this fishing pressure is presently unknown.
  
  
• Species:8.31 Blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus)
• Assessor(s):M. Heupel
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:A common and wide-ranging species of the Indo-West Pacific and Central Pacific. Commonly found in shallow waters on and near coral reefs and occasionally in brackish waters. Regularly caught by inshore fisheries and vulnerable to depletion because of its small litter sizes and long gestation periods.
  
  
• Species:8.32 Dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus)
• Assessor(s):M. Camhi, J. Musick & C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (near threatened) Vulnerable (A1abd) NW Atlantic & Gulf of Mexico
• Red list rationale:A large, wide-ranging, coastal and pelagic warm water species. Among the slowest-growing, latest-maturing of known sharks, bearing small litters after a long gestation, and one of the most vulnerable of vertebrates to depletion by man because of its very low intrinsic rate of increase. Difficult to manage or protect because it is taken with other more productive sharks in mixed species fisheries, and has a high mortality rate when taken as bycatch. Catch rates for dusky shark in the western Atlantic have declined markedly. The population in the northwestern Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico is now probably at 15-20% of its mid-1970s abundance. In other regions the impact of fishing has not been as great, but still requires close monitoring.
  
  
• Species:8.33 Sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus)
• Assessor(s):J.A. Musick
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened). Vulnerable (A1a,b,d & 2d) in Northwest Atlantic.
• Red list rationale:A large, slow-growing, late-maturing and low-fecundity coastal species, common and widespread in subtropical and warm temperate waters world-wide. An important component of shark fisheries in most areas where it occurs, although catch data are sparse. Severely overfished in the western North Atlantic, although the stock still contains over 100,000 individuals and supports an active and now tightly managed fishery. A management plan in US waters implemented in 1993 has led to stock stabilisation and the beginning of recovery.
  
  
• Species:8.34 Tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:This large omnivorous shark is common world-wide in tropical and warm-temperate coastal waters. It is a relatively fast growing and fecund species, caught regularly in target and non-target fisheries. There is evidence of declines for several populations where they have been heavily fished. Continued demand, especially for the valuable fins, may result in further declines in the future, but this species can withstand a higher level of fishing activity than many other species of shark. Additionally, juvenile survivorship increases where adult tiger shark populations have been depleted by fisheries and predation of young is lessened.
  
  
• Species:8.35 Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1c,d & 2c,d; C2b).
• Red list rationale:Originally known only from three museum specimens, collected in the 19th century from fresh water in the lower reaches of the Ganges-Hooghly river system. Probably confined to turbid waters of rivers, estuaries and inshore waters in this area. Recently re-reported from the coast of India, but the records need confirmation.
  
  
• Species:8.36 Speartooth shark (Glyphis glyphis)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered (C2a).
• Red list rationale:Known from a single specimen of uncertain location within the Indo-Pacific, with additional material (a few jaws only) of possibly the same species from Papua-New Guinea. Ecology and life history parameters unknown, but extremely rare, and probably confined to rivers, estuaries and coastal waters under significant development and exploitation pressures.
  
  
• Species:8.37 Lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris)
• Assessor(s):S Gruber & L F Sundström
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This large slow-growing coastal shark is common on Atlantic coasts from the US to Brazil and possibly in some west African countries, and in the Pacific from Baja California to Ecuador. Young sharks remain in sheltered coastal nurseries, some of which are subject to habitat degradation. Adults may undertake long seasonal migrations. The species is caught in largely unmanaged commercial and recreational fisheries, and there is increasing evidence of local population depletion in the Eastern Pacific and West Atlantic.
  
  
• Species:8.38 Blue shark (Prionace glauca)
• Assessor(s):J. Stevens
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:While blue sharks are among the most abundant, widespread, fecund and faster growing of the elasmobranchs, and a pelagic species that is widely distributed throughout the world's oceans, they are also the most heavily fished sharks in the world. The impact of an annual fisheries mortality (mainly of bycatch) of an estimated ten to 20 million individuals is likely to be having an effect on the world population, but monitoring data are inadequate to assess the scale of any population decline. There is concern over the removal of such large numbers of this likely keystone predator from the oceanic ecosystem.
  
  
• Species:8.39 Atlantic sharpnose shark (Rhizoprionodon terraenovae)
• Assessor(s):E. Cortés
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (least concern)
• Red list rationale:A small coastal shark that is abundant within its western North Atlantic range. Despite high pressure from both directed and incidental fisheries, R. terraenovae appears to be a fast maturing, relatively fecund species with moderate potential population rates of increase.
  
  
• Species:8.40 Spadenose shark (Scoliodon laticaudus)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This small coastal shark is abundant in the northern Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia. Despite being commonly caught in fisheries there are no data available on its status. Its life history should make it more resilient to fishing than larger, longer-lived, species of elasmobranch, but limited fecundity suggests that it could be vulnerable to recruitment over-fishing.
  
  
• Species:8.41 Whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus)
• Assessor(s):M. Smale
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This small shark is widely distributed in warm shallow Indo-Pacific waters and is closely associated with coral reefs. Its restricted habitat, depth range, small litter size and moderately late age at maturity suggest that, with increasing fishing pressure, this species may become threatened.
  
  
• Species:8.42 Scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini)
• Assessor(s):J.E. Kotas
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This common large hammerhead is widely distributed in warm temperate and tropical seas, occurring from the shore and surface over continental and insular shelves to adjacent deep water. Pups occupy shallow coastal nursery grounds, often heavily exploited by inshore fisheries. This widely distributed species is extremely commonly taken in fisheries, both as a target species and as utilised bycatch (fins are highly valued). Lack of data on population trends makes it difficult to assess whether the high level of catches of this species at all life stages is having an effect on stocks, but some declines are reported.
  
  
• Species:8.43 Great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran)
• Assessor(s):J. Denham
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:A large widely-distributed tropical water shark, largely restricted to continental shelves. Although not targeted directly by commercial fisheries, this is a probable bycatch species of tropical longline and drift net fisheries, with high value fins.
  
  
• Species:8.44 Bonnethead shark (Sphyrna tiburo)
• Assessor(s):E. Cortés
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (least concern)
• Red list rationale:An abundant small hammerhead of shallow estuaries and bays on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of America. Despite pressure from both directed and incidental fisheries, S. tiburo is an abundant species with some of the highest population rates of increase calculated for sharks.
  
  
• Species:8.45 Smooth hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened).
• Red list rationale:A relatively common and wide-spread shark, captured in a number of fisheries throughout its range, mostly by gillnet and longline. There is likely to be significant mortality of this species in large-scale longline and driftnet fisheries, although the impact on populations is unknown at present. Fins from hammerhead sharks are prized in Asia and individuals caught as by-catch are unlikely to be released alive.

• Species:9.1 Knifetooth, sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V.Compagno, S.F.Cook & M. I. Oetinger
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1a,c,d,e & 2c,d,e).
• Red list rationale:This large sawfish is distributed through much of the Indo-West Pacific region. It is, like all other Pristids, disproportionately subject to continued capture in the net gear widely employed throughout its range. It is also vulnerable to habitat loss and damage as a result of human activities in shallow inshore coastal waters and estuaries. Extensive fishing and this species K-selected life history have caused substantial reductions in abundance and the virtual disappearance of this species from commercial catches in regions where it was once considered fairly common.
  
  
• Species:9.2 Dwarf or Queensland sawfish (Pristis clavata)
• Assessor(s):S.F.Cook, L.J.V. Compagno & P. R. Last
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1a,c,d & 2c,d).
• Red list rationale:This small species of sawfish is known only from northern Australia, but may also occur through Indonesia and adjacent areas of Southeast Asia. The population is much reduced as a result of bycatch in commercial gillnet and trawl fisheries throughout its limited confirmed range. Its known distribution may expand with further collections in adjacent waters, but these areas are also fished sufficiently intensively for all species of sawfishes to be commonly bycaught in local fisheries and for populations to be similarly depleted.
  
  
• Species:9.3 Great-tooth or freshwater sawfish (Pristis microdon)
• Assessor(s):L.J.V.Compagno & S.F.Cook
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1bcde & 2bcde). Critically Endangered (A1abc & 2cd) in South East Asia.
• Red list rationale:A large species of sawfish that occurs mostly in freshwaters of Southeast Asia and Australia. It is extremely vulnerable to fisheries and virtually all known populations have experienced very serious declines. It is also threatened by habitat loss and degradation over most of its range from eastern India, through much of Southeast Asia, to Northern Australia.
  
  
• Species:9.4 Smalltooth or wide sawfish (Pristis pectinata)
• Assessor(s):W. F. Adams
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1bcd, & 2cd). Critically Endangered (A1bcd, & 2cd) in North and Southwest Atlantic.
• Red list rationale:This large, widely distributed, sawfish has been wholly or nearly extirpated from large areas of its former range in the North Atlantic (Mediterranean, US Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico) and the Southwest Atlantic coast by fishing and habitat modification. Its status elsewhere is uncertain but likely to be similarly reduced. Reports of this species from outside the Atlantic may be misidentifications of other pristids, but these populations are also likely to be similarly affected.
  
  
• Species:9.5 Largetooth sawfish (Pristis perotteti)
• Assessor(s):S.F.Cook, L.J.V. Compagno, & M. I. Oetinger
• Red list assessment:Critically Endangered (A1abc, 2cd).
• Red list rationale:A large, previously widely distributed marine, estuarine and freshwater sawfish. It has been taken in (former) directed fisheries and extremely vulnerable to bycatch in virtually all fisheries throughout its Atlantic and Eastern Pacific range. The species has been extirpated from its former European range and its status is known to be especially serious in Lake Nicaragua and other Central American sites.
  
  
• Species:9.6 Common sawfish (Pristis pristis)
• Assessor(s):S.F.Cook & L.J.V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Critically Endangered (A1abc, 2cd).
• Red list rationale:A large species of sawfish that was once common in the Mediterranean and Eastern Atlantic, but has now, along with all other sawfishes, been extirpated from Europe and the Mediterranean. Its status in West Africa is unsurveyed, but it is extremely vulnerable to bycatch and is believed to be severely depleted in Africa, where elasmobranch fisheries effort has increased. Without timely intervention, there is a high probability that this sawfish will become extinct.
  
  
• Species:9.7 Green sawfish (Pristis zijsron)
• Assessor(s):L. J.V. C, S. F. Cook & M. I. Oetinger
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1bcd, & 2cd).
• Red list rationale:A formerly common Indo-West Pacific sawfish that inhabits marine areas. Intensive exploitation in directed and bycatch fisheries throughout its Australian, South East Asian and Indian Ocean range has resulted in severe population depletions in many, if not most, areas. Records have been extremely infrequent or absent from some parts of its (former?) range during the past 30-40 years.

• Species:10.1 Whitespot giant guitarfish (Rhynchobatus djiddensis)
• Assessor(s):C. Simpfendorfer
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1bd, A2d).
• Red list rationale:A large guitarfish common in the Indo-West Pacific. Its fins are highly prized in Asian markets and are among the most valuable of any species, making it an important target in retained bycatch and directed fisheries throughout its range. Substantial declines in abundance have been documented in the extensive targeted Indonesian fishery and are likely occurring elsewhere, although there is virtually no effective management or recording of catches of this species in the Indo-West Pacific. Limited life history data make accurate assessment of its status difficult and life history research is a high priority.
  
  
• Species:10.2 Brazilian guitarfish (Rhinobatos horkelii)
• Assessor(s):R. Lessa & C. M. Vooren
• Red list assessment:Critically Endangered A1b,d, Ab,d.
• Red list rationale:The abundance of this medium-sized coastal species from the southeastern coast of South America has decreased in Southern Brazil (the centre of its range) by 96% over the ten years from 1984, when landings peaked, to 1994. It is extremely vulnerable to capture by fisheries because the inshore areas where all pregnant females and adult males congregate for parturition and mating are so heavily fished. Immature fish, which remain inshore year-round, are also taken. Because the fishery targets several other elasmobranchs, and is not dependent on R. horkelli, the near-extinction of this species alone will not cause the fishery to close. It is therefore quite likely that this endemic guitarfish could be driven to extinction in the foreseeable future.

• Species:11.1 Pacific Electric Ray (Torpedo californica)
• Assessor(s):J A Neer
• Red list assessment:Lower risk (least concern)
• Red list rationale:The Pacific electric ray has a restricted distribution in relatively shallow, inshore waters on the west coast of North America. Targeted commercial or recreational fisheries do not threaten it, and levels of bycatch appear low.

• Species:12.1 Deepsea skate (Bathyraja abyssicola)
• Assessor(s):S.F. Cook, G. Zorzi & L.J.V. Compagno.
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient.
• Red list rationale:Information is lacking on the range, population size, stock structure and biology of this and other rarely recorded deep-sea species, with few deepwater fisheries recording catches to species level. However, as fishing effort continues to move into deeper water, such species will appear in increasing numbers in bycatch. More research is required on this and other poorly known deep-sea species to fully determine their threatened status.
  
  
• Species:12.2 Common skate (Raja (Dipturus) batis)
• Assessor(s):J. Ellis & P. Walker
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1abcd; A2bcd). Critically Endangered (A1abcd; A2bcd) in shelf seas
• Red list rationale:This skate, the largest European rajid, was once an abundant constituent of the demersal fish community of north-west Europe. Fisheries data indicate that populations of D. batis have undergone an extremely high level of depletion in the central part of its range around the British Isles since the early 20th Century (the three generation period). It has been extirpated from certain areas, but is still caught in Scottish waters and along the shelf edge. Although landings appear stable in other parts of the species' NW Atlantic range, this is attributed to the redirection of fishing effort from shelf seas (where heavily depleted populations are now Critically Endangered) into deeper water where previously unfished populations are now being taken. Fishing pressure on this species is unlikely to be reduced in future.
  
  
• Species:12.3 Big skate (Raja (Dipturus) binoculata)
• Assessor(s):J. Ellis & N. Dulvey
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:This large-bodied demersal skate occurs in the north-eastern Pacific, from California to Alaska, and is one of the three most important rajids fished in the southern part of its range. Population data are inadequate to determine its precise exploitation status. It is, however, one of the larger, slow maturing species of skate and its biological characteristics likely make it as susceptible to over-fishing as D. batis and D. laevis.
  
  
• Species:12.4 Thornback skate (Raja (Raja) clavata)
• Assessor(s):J. Ellis & P. Walker
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:Raja clavata is one of the most abundant rajids in the North-eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, and is an important component of mixed demersal trawl fisheries. It is also taken in set nets and targeted by recreational anglers. There is some evidence of decline in catch rates in NW European waters. A minimum landing size exists in certain inshore areas of the UK.
  
  
• Species:12.5 Barndoor skate (Raja laevis)
• Assessor(s):J Musick
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1bcd, A2d)
• Red list rationale:The barndoor skate, one of the largest rajiids in the Northwest Atlantic, matures late and is highly vulnerable to capture in multispecies fisheries. Shallow water populations have been severely overfished; 45 years ago this skate was recorded in 10% of tows on St Pierre Bank, Newfoundland, but none has been caught there for 20 years. Very recent surveys indicate an increasing trend in abundance (<1%) in both the US and Canada, as a result of a significant reduction in fisheries activity, and that this stock (or another) extends into deep water (>500m) off Canada. The latter may not be outside the range of current fishing gears.
  
  
• Species:12.6 Smalleyed ray, (Raja microocellata)
• Assessor(s):J. Ellis
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (near threatened)
• Red list rationale:Raja microocellata is restricted to the Atlantic coasts of Northwest Europe, from Gibraltar to the British Isles. It favours sandy bays and is only recorded as abundant at a few sites (e.g. Bristol Channel, UK and Bertheaume Bay, France). Given its restricted and patchy geographical distribution and localised abundance, however, local populations may potentially be vulnerable to over-fishing, habitat degradation and other anthropogenic disturbance.
  
  
• Species:12.7 Port Davey skate (Raja sp.)
• Assessor(s):D. Gledhill & P. Last
• Red list assessment:Endangered (B1&2c)
• Red list rationale:Very little is known of this primitive skate, which was discovered just over a decade ago. It is only recorded from Bathurst and Macquarie Harbours on the Tasmanian west coast, which may contain two distinct populations. Its range in these estuary systems is not known, but is likely to be small, appearing to favour the shallow upper regions. There are no scientific data relating to the biology, distribution or the environmental requirements of this animal. Based on the few initial studies into this species, it appears that the population is very small.

• Species:13.1 Shorttailed river stingray (Potamotrygon brachyurus)
• Assessor(s):M. Drioli and G. Chiaramonte.
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:One of the seven nominal species of Potamotrygon of the Paraná - Uruguay river drainages, southern South America. A poorly known endemic and moderately common freshwater ray, its status is uncertain due to the sparse life history and population data available. Further study and re-assessment in the near future is highly recommended for this ray, which is harpooned for food, has a limited geographic range and a freshwater habitat facing major impacts.
  
  
• Species:13.2 Tocantins River Ray (Potamotrygon henlei)
• Assessor(s):R.S. Rosa and M.L.G. Araújo
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:A rare, poorly known river ray, possibly endemic to the Tocantins and Araguaia River drainages in Brazil where freshwater habitat degradation is occurring. Although this attractive freshwater ray enters the ornamental fish trade, life history and population data are lacking. Further study and a new assessment in the near future is highly recommended for this species.
  
  
• Species:13.3 Xingu River Ray (Potamotrygon leopoldi)
• Assessor(s):R.S. Rosa and M.L.G. Araújo
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:A rare river ray, possibly endemic to the Xingu River drainage in Brazil where freshwater habitat is threatened by illegal mining activity. It is caught for food by natives and exported in large numbers to the ornamental fish trade. There are no life history or population data for this poorly known freshwater ray. Further study and a new assessment in the near future is highly recommended, due to this rays' limited geographic range and threatened habitat.
  
  
• Species:13.4 Ocellate river stingray (Potamotrygon motoro)
• Assessor(s):M. Drioli and G. Chiaramonte.
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:The most abundant and widespread of the seven nominal species of Potamotrygon endemic to southern South America. Although this species is taken for food and juveniles enter the ornamental fish trade, it is poorly known with sparse life history and population data available. Further study and a new assessment in the near future is highly recommended, due to this species' limited geographic range and the major impacts to its freshwater habitat.
  
  
• Species:13.5 Black river stingray (Potamotrygon pauckei)
• Assessor(s):M. Drioli and G. Chiaramonte.
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient
• Red list rationale:One of the seven nominal species of Potamotrygon endemic to southern South America. This brackish water ray is poorly known and life history and population data are lacking. Further study and a new assessment in the near future is highly recommended, due to this species' limited geographic range and the major impacts affecting its river habitat.
  
  
• Species:13.6 Smooth freshwater or Niger stingray (D. garouaensis)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (B1 & 2cde; C2b).
• Red list rationale:This species is confirmed from only three West African rivers, and has declined or disappeared from parts of its original centre of abundance. Population declines will likely continue as a result of expanding fisheries and environmental degradation, and there is no direct or indirect protection for this species or its habitat.
  
  
• Species:13.7 Mekong freshwater stingray (Dasyatis laosensis)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1cde & 2cde; B1 & 2ce)
• Red list rationale:This obligate freshwater stingray has a limited distribution in just two rivers (Mekong and Chao Phraya). It is under heavy (incidental) fishing pressure and, more importantly, it is being affected by habitat degradation on a massive scale.
  
  
• Species:13.8 Giant freshwater whipray (Himantura chaophraya)
• Assessor(s):L. J.V. Compagno & S. F. Cook
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1bcde & 2ce). Critically Endangered (A1b,c,d,e & 2c,e) in Thailand and probably other localities.
• Red list rationale:This obligate freshwater species is recorded from several rivers in South East Asia and northern Australia and is probably unrecorded in others. The potential for exchange between these subpopulations is presumably very limited. The species has been and will continue to be adversely affected in much of its range by a complex of factors including directed and bycatch fisheries and habitat alteration or destruction. The possibility of extinction in the wild for some subpopulations is considered extremely high, but the status of those in Australia is probably favourable.
  
  
• Species:13.9 Ganges stingray (Himantura fluviatilis)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered (A1cde & 2cde, B1 & 2c).
• Red list rationale:This giant stingray as currently known (from few specimens) has a limited distribution, restricted to the Ganges River system, where it is threatened by fisheries, pollution and habitat degradation. There is a difference of nomenclatural opinion between systematists as to the correct name for this species; regardless, Indian populations are under threat.
  
  
• Species:13.10 Marbled freshwater stingray (H. oxyrhyncha)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered, (B1&2c).
• Red list rationale:This very rare species is known from only five specimens in museum collections worldwide, three being the syntypes from Pnom Penh, Kampuchea. It is known to occur from only three or four riverine systems. It is confined to tropical freshwater habitats that are under intensive threat from fisheries, pollution, logging in the catchment areas and river engineering projects, and is a desirable aquarium species.
  
  
• Species:13.11 White-edge freshwater whipray (Himantura signifer)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered, (B1&2c).
• Red list rationale:This very rare species is known from only a few specimens and four riverine systems (although it may also be present but unrecorded in other rivers). It is confined to tropical freshwater habitats that are under intensive threat from fisheries, pollution, logging in the catchment areas and river engineering projects.
  
  
• Species:13.12 Bluespotted ribbontail ray (Taeniura lymma)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (Near Threatened).
• Red list rationale:Although very wide-ranging and common, this species is subject to human-induced problems because of capture in intensive inshore fisheries in most places where it occurs, its attractiveness for the marine aquarium fish trade (small size and brilliant colour pattern), and, especially, by widespread destruction of its reef habitat.
  
  
• Species:13.13 Porcupine ray (Urogymnus asperrimus)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1bd & 2d)
• Red list rationale:Although wide-spread in the Indian Ocean and Indo- West Pacific, this species does not seem to be regularly recorded, and has certainly significantly decreased in abundance in parts of the centre of its range for which comparative data are available.
  
  
• Species:13.14 Pincushion ray (Urogymnus ukpam)
• Assessor(s):L. J. V. Compagno
• Red list assessment:Endangered (B1 & 2ce).
• Red list rationale:Uncommon to rare, with less than ten specimens in museum collections, most recently collected in any numbers from the lakes of Gabon or adjacent rivers. Described as being abundant in the rivers of "Old Calabar" in the last century, but seldom reported since.
  
  
• Species:13.15 Spotted eagle ray (Aetobatus narinari)
• Assessor(s):H. Ishihara
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient.
• Red list rationale:A very widely distributed, relatively fecund, schooling species. This ray is taken as bycatch in much of its range in tropical and warm temperate seas. No data available on population trends.
  
  
• Species:13.16 Bat ray (Myliobatis californicus)
• Assessor(s):G. M. Cailliet
• Red list assessment:Lower Risk (LR) Least Concern.
• Red list rationale:This abundant eastern Pacific coastal ray is relatively fast-growing and fecund. It is not a major fisheries target, being taken primarily by recreational anglers and only secondarily by commercial fishermen. There are no reliable population estimates, catch data are unreliable and catch per unit effort do not exist. Adequate life history data exist for California and Oregon waters, a sizeable portion of its range and the main centre of distribution for this species, to indicate that there does not appear to be a threat to the US population.
  
  
• Species:13.17 Manta Ray (Manta birostris)
• Assessor(s):H. Ishihara
• Red list assessment:Data Deficient.
• Red list rationale:This common and widespread large coastal plankton-feeding ray is very widely distributed in tropical shelf waters and around oceanic islands. Mantas give birth to just one very large pup every two or three years. There are no target fisheries in most parts of its range, and bycatch is rare under the present fishing methods in use world-wide. Unfished populations are not thought to be threatened. However, population declines have been observed where target fishing has taken place. The species is reportedly now very scarce in the Gulf of California. It was decided that the overall lack of data on this species makeit most suitable for the DD category.
  
  
• Species:13.18 Giant devilray (Mobula mobular)
• Assessor(s):G. Notarbartolo di Sciara
• Red list assessment:Vulnerable (A1c,d).
• Red list rationale:This huge plankton feeding ray is the largest of the genus Mobula. It has a very low reproductive capacity (giving birth to a single huge pup at unknown intervals) and a limited range in offshore deepwaters of the Mediterranean (and possibly adjoining North Atlantic waters). Its Mediterranean population is suspected to have declined as a result of bycatch mortality and declining habitat quality.

• View the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species web pages.